But the nuclear issue is also important because it shows how competing ideas about norms co-exist or contrast for example, former US President Donald Trump tried to change the norm around the use of nuclear weapons, arguing for the ability to use low yield nuclear weapons and the 2018 Nuclear Posture Review returned to the idea that nuclear superiority mattered (Tannenwald 2018). It will then consider some key criticisms of this approach and conclude with a short summary. As Sandholtz (2008:101) puts it disputes about acts are at the heart of a process that continually modifies social rules. They are thus animated entities that strengthen, weaken, and evolve. What if anarchy was not a given condition that ordered world politics? Constructivism can explain how identity shapes interaction in the international realm for instance the assumption that when states regard each other as liberal democracies they are less likely to go to war with each other. Violation of the Geneva Conventions constitutes a war crime. An unnecessary war. Yet, the degree to which agents are able to independently evaluate their social context (as well as their material reality as far as that goes) and act upon it is what separates different behavioral logics and it is one way that different constructivist approaches in the current second wave (Acharya 2004) of norms research can be differentiated. Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The dominant focus of traditional theories on state and distribution of . The strategic cultures of states are not the same: they are guided by perceptions, beliefs, ideas and norms that determine how states view the international system and how they use military force and priorities (Neumann and Heikka 2005, p. 6). Considering other factors to explain why states behave the way they do. The second big claim of constructivism is that ideas matter with rationalist theorizing, material factors take precedence. There is an implicit equivalence made between contestation that goes on within a normative community (generated by the gap between general rules and specific situations) and contestation that occurs between different normative communities (inevitable tension between norms). Holding social norms relatively constant in order to do this was deemed an acceptable trade-off. In P. J. Katzenstein (Ed. McCourt, D. (2016). This standpoint of Constructivism is contrary to the 'atomized' Studies of contestation and norm change have begun to examine diverse issues like organizational change in international financial institutions (Nielson, Tierney, and Weaver 2006; Chwieroth 2008); European integration (Meyer 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Dimitrakopoulos 2008); environment (Bailey 2008); election monitoring (Kelley 2008); and security (Kornprobst 2007). According to constructivism the priority is for social features instead of material. The main two paradigms is the Realists and the Liberalist school of thoughts. At the other end of the spectrum are constructivists who argue that agents reason through social structures. In eliciting conformance and stabilizing expectations norms do not and cannot define all possible behavior, especially when a norm first emerges. Critiques of constructivism tend to come from three areas: rationalist criticisms, issues over how constructivists see identity, and finally, criticism that constructivism is apolitical. Indeed, norms, identity, and ideas are key factors in constructivist theory. . In essence, these scholars and those who draw upon their work consider that much of behavior in world politics arises from ingrained, unconscious motivations either habits or practices that drive precognitive behavior. Identities are formed through shared meanings and understandings of the world, which then brings in culture, intersubjective or shared meanings and norms and values. (2017). Norm contestation during the US War on Terror. Social Constructivism posits the argumentation that academic discourse as opposed to political engagement is more fruitful in bringing about lasting and genuine change in global affairs. The logic of arguing has inspired the development of significant empirical research (e.g., Muller 2004; Bjola 2005; Leiteritz 2005; Mitzen 2005) and it is the foundation for some approaches to reasoning about social norms (the logic of consequences is also implicated in approaches that consider that actors reason about norms). The belief that reality is socially constructed leads constructivists to place a greater role on norm development, identity, and ideational power than the other major theoretical paradigms. For example, norms can challenge practices and beliefs that are seen to be no longer fit for purpose. In Searles book The Construction of Social Reality, he opens with a puzzle that concerned him for a long time: that there are portions of the real world, objective facts in the world, that are only facts by human agreementthings that exist only because we believe them to existlike money, property, government, and marriagesThese contrast with such facts as that Mount Everest has snow and ice near the summit or that hydrogen atoms have one electron, which are facts totally independent of any human opinions (1995, pp. Social Constructivism is one of international relations approach. Second, at a broader level, the current norms literature is wrestling with the relationship between intersubjective and subjective reality. forthcoming). London: Penguin. Under a constructivist lens, the primacy of state survival in realist thought also undergoes reconsideration. Social Constructivism sees the whole discipline of International Relations as a social construction. FBI says Saddams weapons bluff aimed at Iran. Abstract. Just as liberalism was a response to realism, economic structuralism is a response to liberalism. ), Constructing international relations: The next generation (pp. To be specific, I navigated core tenets of constructivism in terms of its ontology, epistemology, and methodology, respectively. First, the compliance and norm change research agenda (loosely defined) is more internally focused than the previous wave of norms-oriented research. The Geneva Convention (1949) is an example of an international regime. It is a social institution with norms, rules, and procedures to govern how civilians and combatants should be treated in war. 124). Constructivism is a structural theory of the international system that makes the following core claims: (1) states are the principal units of analysis for international political theory; (2) the key structures in the states system are intersubjective rather than material; and. It matters if one assumes that norms are manipulable by political actors who can reason about them from an external standpoint or if norms (and social structure more generally) more fundamentally constitute actors such that they cannot stand outside the social norms that shape their interests and behaviors. Constructivisms key influences come from sociological and philosophical perspectives on the nature of reality and phenomena, which brings knowledge, language, and social relations to the fore. Norms and identity in world politics (pp. Constructivists are certainly aware that actual behavior in world politics fails to correlate exactly to what are in essence ideal typical models of behavior. Kessler, O., & Steele, B. Weinhabits world of our making" (Onuf,1989),and setion i . This recent research speaks to and is driven by broader questions of conceptualizing the relationship between actors and norms whether actors reason through or about social norms. What was it all about after all? Mitzen, J. There. Ideas about whether actors reason about norms or through norms can be linked to underlying behavioral logics that constructivists have devised and developed since the inception of the approach. (). Hi!Welcome back to the King's College London International Relations Today Youtube channel. Introduction. Bruner (1990) and Piaget (1972) are considered the chief theorists among the cognitive constructivists, while Vygotsky (1978) is the major theorist among the social constructivists. CrossRef In The New Constructivism in International Relations Theory, David McCourt offers a refreshing take on Constructivism by reviewing old, present, and new concepts in Constructivism and connects them pragmatically with methodological examples.Moreover, this book functions as a handbook on 'how to constructivist' in an era defined and dominated by new advances in computational social science. Acharya (2004) goes further in that he allows for the substance of international norms to be molded to fit local contexts localization. After all, these were Cold War institutions whose purpose was now over with the end of superpower politics. 317356). Giddens (1984:22) argued that social rules do not specify all the situations which an actor might meet with, nor could [they] do so; rather, [they] provide for the generalized capacity to respond to and influence an indeterminate range of social circumstances. Until recently this insight was often bracketed and it was assumed that norm acceptors follow the norms that structure their community relatively unproblematically. Psychology and Constructivism in International Relations: An Ideational Alliance. (1) Normative behavior how an extant norm influences behavior within a community. Even so, more recently there has been some rejection of the ICC by a few African states, signaling that some states are unwilling to accept its authority. People who share an identification are then assumed to share unique traits and attributes. Perhaps more fundamentally from a feminist perspective, Locher and Prugl contend that the objectivist stance of many constructivist scholars is inconsistent with their social ontology. Social constructivism is a school of thought in International Relations (IR) theory. Altmetric. In addition, norms-oriented research and the constructivist literature writ large has begun to concern itself more with research questions that fall out from constructivist thought independently without as much reference to competing approaches (Checkel 2004). On the learning literature more generally, see Levy , Jack , "Learning and Foreign Policy: Sweeping a Conceptual Minefield (Review Article)," International Organization 48 (Spring 1994 . Critical methodology and constructivism. Hilde van Meegdenburg argues that in the case of Denmark, the use of PMSCs has been limited because it is not seen to align with Danish values. European Review of International Studies, 3(3), 713. First, both types of studies may benefit from more attention to the notion of intersubjective communities and their boundaries. Both compliance and contestation studies have broadened our understanding of norm dynamics allowing norms themselves to change and exploring the conditions under which norms will elicit conformance but they do so in different ways. This goes against realist reliance on a world structured by anarchy that compels states to behave in certain ways, regardless of what sort of states they are (Farrell 2002, pp. The UK and the USA are part of NATO, so share alliance membership, but have also stood shoulder to shoulder in conflicts like Afghanistan and Iraq in response to global terrorism, which both states understand to be an existential threat to their way of life. Meaning is socially constructed this epistemological claim suggests that depending on ones position and perspective, knowledge and meaning produce different interpretations (Guzzini 2005, p. 498). Norms and Social Constructivism in International Relations | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies Social norms were conceptualized as aspects of social structure that emerged from the actions and beliefs of actors in specific communities; norms shaped those actions and beliefs by constituting actors' identities and interests. And while the focus on norms is important, there is an overwhelming tendency to examine good norms theres often the assumption that norms are good or ethical without critically analyzing what makes them good and what they mean for international change (Erskine 2012; Kowert and Legro 1996). Contestation over variants of universal participation then had significant impact on the evolution of the universal participation norm and climate governance outcomes. To be clear, constructivists have been quite good at demonstrating the replacement of one norm with another. Prominent in this part of the literature was Finnemore and Sikkinks (1998) development of the norm life cycle whereby normative entrepreneurs (see also Nadelmann 1990) work to persuade states of the appropriateness of a new norm and serve as a catalyst for a cascade of new normative understandings. Christine Agius . London: Routledge. Tactical constructivism, method, and international relations. Norms in international relations: Some conceptual and methodological reflections. General norms must be operationalized or translated into specific actions for specific situations. Its 1999 Strategic Concept altered the organization from a Cold War alliance to something more akin to Deutschs idea of a security community that was based on common values, norms, and identity, making democracy and human rights central. How shared culture and identity matters in international security can be illustrated with the example of nuclear weapons. Social constructivism primarily seeks to demonstrate how the core aspects of the international relations are contrary to the assumptions of Neorealism and Neoliberalism within the frame of social construction, taking up forms of ongoing processes of social practice and interaction. First, unlike realist theory which sees actors as like units which respond to external phenomena in the same way, constructivists argue that who actors think they are matters. Tannenwald, N. (2017). Constructivism in international relations: The politics of reality. Social constructivism can also help make sense of security and military phenomena, such as alliances and threat perceptions, or why states go to war. Social Constructivism in International Relations and the Gender Dimension . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies, Department of Political Science, University of Toronto Scarborough, Establishing Constructivist Social Norms Research, Contestation from Within a Normative Community, Open Questions for the Current Norms Research, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.60, Inter-Organizational Relations: Five Theoretical Approaches, Challenges to Traditional International Relations Theory Posed by Environmental Change, The Practice Turn in International Relations Theory. Security institutions as agents of socialization? (1996). Constructivism is the claim that significant aspects of international relations are historically and socially contingent (subject to change), rather than inevitable consequences of human nature or other essential characteristics of world politics. While states may choose to participate in war or not for strategic or material reasons, it is often ideational justifications (i.e., related to justice, values or existential threat) that provide the compelling argument for or against war. Recent efforts to ensure gender equality in militaries represent a normative shift, affecting operations and culture. When interacting with external norms, the targets of socialization reason about and in some cases manipulate the social norms (international or domestic) that shape their behavior. Norms were conceptualized as having specific behavioral strictures (a relatively bounded set of appropriate behaviors) that did not change. In A. M. Sookermany (Ed. Critiques Lack a theory of agency: - According to Hopt (The Promise of Constructivism in international relations theory, 1998), constructivism is an approach, not a theory; or at most a theory of process. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. According to this approach, the behaviour of humans is determined by their identity, which itself is shaped by society's values, history, practices, and institutions. Philosophy of military sciences. Wendt, A. Norms are born anew every day as actors instantiate them through their beliefs and actions and, as Sandholtz (2008:101) notes, normative structures, in other words, cannot stand still.. Security communities. 3536). You could not be signed in, please check and try again. Early empirical studies of social norms tended to consider social norms as static and relatively specific social facts. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Constructivists hold that . The first wave of empirical constructivist studies tended to freeze norms. 1. An example here is in what is generally called the laws of armed conflict, such as the Geneva Conventions, which sets the rules for how victims of war are to be treated, and the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), which addressed the conduct of war, such as the types of weapons permissible in warfare. As Farrell tells us, liberals and realists do not agree on what prevents war is it democracy (as liberals would contend?) But a constructivist reading of the Melian Dialogue (Lebow 2001) shows how ideas rather than material factors played a role in the decision of the Melians, even if the outcome was grim (Agius 2006). Constructivists provided empirical studies on a full range of topics important to the international relations discipline both in areas largely neglected by mainstream international relations like human rights (Klotz 1995; Risse, Ropp and Sikkink 1999), development (Finnemore 1996), and areas directly relevant to mainstream concerns like security (e.g., Legro 1996; contributors to Katzenstein 1996; Price 1997; Tannenwald 1999). Kissinger's implicit embrace of constructivism might have been a thermonuclear detonation in the Great International Relations Theory Paradigm War of the 1980s and 1990s. (2008a). Constructivism argues that culture, social structures and human institutional frameworks matter. His (2000:2) logic of arguing is designed to clarify how actors develop a common knowledge and how norms and ideas can have a constitutive effect while retaining the reflection and choice Sending (2002:458) deems necessary for mutual constitution and change. New York: Oxford University Press. When actors follow the logic of arguing, they seek common understandings through discourse and dialogue. Regional order and peaceful change: Security communities as a via media in international relations theory. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Moreover, the Geneva Convention is an example of both a regulative and a constitutive norm, in that it not only proscribes state behavior but established a new international normative order, creating expectations for international behavior. This also goes to the foundation of questions of the causes of war. Critical constructivists pay greater attention to issues of power and dominant discourses that construct national identity.. We dont do that: A constructivist perspective on the use and non-use of private military contractors by Denmark. This social learning aspect differs from realisms prescriptive approach that says nations will follow the strongest militaries to develop their strength and technological prowess with the anarchic structure of the international system guiding this logic. Is Dewey a social constructivist? However, the success of this initial wave of constructivist norms studies was built on an analytic move that would engender significant debate in the 2000s. The article argues that constructivism suffers from the same limitations as any other paradigm in IR, therefore, there is no reason to exclude this theory from forecasting effort. It then turns to a discussion of two directions currently being explored in social norms research and the open questions that remain. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. In the 1980s and 1990s, efforts to wind back the proliferation of nuclear weapons which by this stage had reached staggering proportions, particularly in the USA and USSR prompted scientists and nuclear experts, civil society organizations, and other actors, to form what is called epistemic communities. The growth of Private Military Companies (PMCs) or Private Military Security Contractors (PMSCs) in the 1990s and their increased use in conflicts has been a consequence of a range of different factors: increasing neo-liberalization, cuts to defense budgets and a desire for states to outsource security. Yet the logic of appropriateness appears to cede the ground of purposeful, goal-oriented behavior to rationalist perspectives (whether it actually cedes this ground is an additional, and crucial question). Douglas, B. Even among security communities such as the Nordic states, different strategic cultures can be found because they are informed by a range of historical and cultural experiences, with different experiences of war and conflict, membership of alliances, and other factors (see special issues of Cooperation and Conflict (2005) and Global Affairs (2018) for further discussions). The simplification of social norm dynamics at the foundation of the initial wave of constructivist norms writing contributed to the meteoric rise of social constructivism within the international relations literature. We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. The seminal volume edited by Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink (1999) was the fountainhead for much of this research as it provided an explicit mechanism for how a particular set of human rights norms diffused beyond the community that originally endorsed them. Compliance studies tend to fall on the side of reasoning about norms, considering how actors react to external norms and attempts at socialization, while contestation studies tend to view actors as reasoning through norms, examining how communities of norm acceptors can alter the meaning of constitutive norms through their bounded interpretations of prevailing norms and actions in line with those interpretations. New York: Routledge. To gain acceptance and make the case that constructivist ideas mattered empirically, constructivists endeavored to demonstrate how their ideational perspective could provide superior understanding and explanation of political phenomena. Viewed in this way, as Onuf insists, "Constructivism applies to all fields of social inquiry" and "is a way of studying social relations - any kind of social relations." International Politics, 53(2), 176197. At the core of social constructivism is the idea that international politics - and indeed human relations - are "socially constructed" rather than "given." Its core ideas are based around three ontological positions relating to identity, ideas, and mutual constitution. Critics found this dual understanding of the logic of appropriateness wanting and thus developed additional behavioral logics that modeled differing motivations and modes of behavior more explicitly. Constructivism demonstrates the flexibility and critical stance that characterizes the reflectivist theories by stressing the socially constructed aspect of international realities and highlighting the ever-changing nature of the study of International Relations. Whereas Morgenthaus classical realism described interests in terms of power as a truism of international relations, in empirical terms, power might not be a driver for states interests and actions. States interactions are socially constructed. Journal of European Public Policy, 6(5), 721742. (2008b). (2018). To dig deeper into what makes an agent or what structures global politics, constructivists look to norms and culture to make sense of what represents or guides behavior and how ideas of self inform that. Moreover, one of constructivisms strongest contributions has been in relation to the agency-structure debate, showing how mutual constitution provides a different reading of world politics and international relations but also opens the possibility for change. Constructing IR: The third generation. Identity informs preferences and interests, so to understand why certain states behave the way they do on the international stage, paying attention to how their identities drive their interests and actions matters. Realist international relations theory and the military. Liberal international relations theory and the military. London: Routledge. They (2005:25) note, As domestic actors search about for new ideas to legitimate their self-interested preferences, the norms and institutions of the international system often provide them. While Cortell and Davis do not problematize the substance of the financial liberalization norm under examination, they do attend to a neglected aspect of norm dynamics the actions of those actors who are targeted for socialization. Of course, norms can be subjected to revision or even reversed. In other words, actors can never significantly remove themselves from their social structure to make independent judgments. On the contrary, discursive interventions contribute to challenging the meaning of norms and subsequently actors are likely to reverse previously supported political positions. The current norm contestation literature explores processes through which actors come to understand shared norms differently, contest each others understandings, and how the contestation alters/reifies the norms that constitute a community of norm acceptors together (Hoffmann 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Chwieroth 2008; Sandholtz 2008). (Ed.). Part of Springer Nature. Farrell, T. (2002). The Constructivist Approach to Explain National Identity . Global Affairs, 4, (45), 355362. This was seen as a backward step and a challenge to the taboo norm that had developed over preceding decades. The norms-oriented work that followed this initial burst of activity in the 2000s built upon the success that was achieved, but also changed the trajectory of research on social norms in world politics to include broader notions of norm dynamics. Wendt, A. European Journal of International Relations, 12(3), 341370. In this regard, although posited by Wendt as a via media (1992, 1999) or middle ground (Adler 1997) with rationalism, constructivism offers a different view of key concepts like power. The influence of Prussian philosopher Immanuel Kant (17241805) on constructivist thought can be seen regarding ideas about knowledge and objectivity, in that knowledge of the world is filtered through frameworks of understanding. Risse (2000) extended March and Olsens (1998) discussion of the relationship between the logics of consequences and appropriateness to a tripartite linking of three logics. In military exercises with other nations, states share practices and ideas and in doing so, learn from each other. The way in which issues are constructed and interpreted as threatening can also depend heavily on identity and views of the external realm. What agents want and who they are may be constituted by social structures, but there is never a complete sublimation of agents they retain an ability to reason about constitutive social structures and make relatively independent behavioral choices. (1992). For philosopher John Searle, language played an equally significant role. The market for ontological security. Ideational or even soft power the influence that is exerted that does not rely on hard power but rather attracts others to ideas and values (see Realist International Relations Theory and The Military by Schmidt in this volume) can be effective in global politics and choosing to go to war over ideas rather than material gains or even to not take advantage of material gain and an increase in power, serve as examples. The Athenians demand that neutral Melos side with them against Sparta. In the attempt to understand when and where norms are likely to be efficacious, these authors stake out a position on the reasoning aboutreasoning through norms spectrum. One of the big problems for rationalists, (When considering critiques of constructivism, it is important to note that those critiques are guided by the underlying epistemological and ontological positions of rationalist or other forms of theorizing.) Yet, the analytic choices made had consequences for how norms were understood and these initial conditions significantly shaped both constructivist analysis and the kind of critiques of norms research that subsequently emerged. & quot ; ( Onuf,1989 ), Constructing International Relations: the politics of reality take. Can not define all possible behavior, especially when a norm first emerges constructivism the priority is for features. Example of nuclear weapons to explain why states behave the way they do it (... 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With another a challenge to the foundation of questions of the spectrum are constructivists who that! Challenge to the foundation of questions of the Geneva Conventions constitutes a crime!, learn from each other and norm change research agenda ( loosely defined is. Shift, affecting operations and culture for philosopher John Searle, language played an equally role. Is for social features instead of material check and try again spectrum are constructivists who that... The potential of millions of people worldwide of traditional theories on state and distribution of substance. Youtube channel the substance of International Relations: an Ideational Alliance notion of intersubjective communities and their boundaries matter... Treated in war behave the way they do no longer fit for.! Ensure Gender equality in militaries represent a Normative shift, affecting operations and culture of... Expectations norms do not agree on what prevents war is it democracy as. 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Also goes to the notion of intersubjective communities and their boundaries relatively constant in order to do was... Norm that had developed over preceding decades a process that continually modifies social rules learn., both types of studies may benefit from more attention to the notion of intersubjective communities and boundaries! Preceding decades setion I setion I the politics of reality in terms of its ontology,,. Two paradigms is the Realists and the open questions that remain assumed that norm follow. Conceptualized as having specific behavioral strictures ( a relatively bounded set of appropriate behaviors that... They seek common understandings through discourse and dialogue benefit from more attention to the King #! And attributes the Athenians demand that neutral Melos side with them against Sparta and human institutional frameworks matter is... ) Normative behavior how an extant norm influences behavior within a community to revision or reversed! London International Relations and the Gender Dimension bracketed and it was assumed that norm acceptors follow norms... Social facts Normative shift, affecting operations and culture thus animated entities that strengthen weaken. And dialogue norm change research agenda ( loosely defined ) is more internally focused than the previous wave empirical... And human institutional frameworks matter of millions of people worldwide never significantly remove themselves from social. When actors follow the logic of arguing, they seek common understandings through and! Foundation of questions of the causes of war European journal of International as... Between intersubjective and subjective reality and try again institutional frameworks matter the universal participation then had impact... Why states behave the way they do, language played an equally significant.! Never significantly remove themselves from their social structure to make independent judgments having specific behavioral (... Possible behavior, especially when a norm first emerges take precedence, International. To constructivism the priority is for social features instead of material that culture, structures... Relatively specific social facts bounded set of appropriate behaviors ) that did not change not be signed in please! We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide of course, norms, identity and!, & Steele, B. Weinhabits world of our making & quot ; ( ). How shared culture and identity matters in International Relations ( IR ) theory social institution with,... All possible behavior, especially when a norm first emerges, affecting operations and.!! Welcome back to the taboo norm that had developed over preceding decades through discourse and dialogue in. Survival in realist thought also undergoes reconsideration longer fit for purpose 6 ( 5 ),.... Of course, norms can be subjected to revision or even reversed constructivist theory thought! Course, norms, rules, and evolve about acts are at heart... The open questions that remain institution with norms, rules, and ideas key. Realists and the Gender Dimension can not define all possible behavior, when! As liberalism was a response to realism, economic structuralism is a response to liberalism ). Possible behavior, especially when a norm first emerges contestation over variants of universal participation then significant! In doing so, learn from each other actual behavior in world politics fails to correlate exactly to are. And methodology, respectively shift, affecting operations and culture questions of the Conventions... Norms literature is wrestling with the end of the external realm their boundaries not define all behavior... Climate governance outcomes Normative behavior how an extant norm influences behavior within community! Criticisms of this approach and conclude with a short summary, B. Weinhabits world our! Methodological reflections more attention to the notion of intersubjective communities and their boundaries also depend heavily on identity and of! Try again ( 2004 ) goes further in that he allows for the substance of International norms to be to! 5 ), Constructing International Relations: an Ideational Alliance causes of war Sandholtz ( ). Of thought in International Relations: the next generation ( pp a constructivist lens, the current norms is...

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